by Rajalaxmi Sahoo | Updated Mar 27, 2023. The court found that the government's planning of the siegei.e., the decisions to use tear gas against the Branch Davidians; to insert the tear gas using military vehicles and to omit specific planning for the possibility that a fire would eruptwas a discretionary function for which the government could not be sued. [147] Some of the connections appear coincidental. Then, the Waco siege began. His website serves as a valuable resource for people seeking to learn more about the tragic incident. Opening passage of "The Sinful Messiah", Waco Tribune-Herald, February 27, 1993[38], On February 27, 1993, the Waco Tribune-Herald began publishing "The Sinful Messiah", a series of articles by Mark England and Darlene McCormick, who reported allegations that Koresh had physically abused children in the compound and had committed statutory rape by taking multiple underage brides. Despite his personal challenges, Thibodeau remains committed to keeping the memory of the Waco siege alive and advocating for justice for the victims and their families. FBI surveillance tapes from devices planted in the wall of the building record a man inside the compound saying "Everybody wake up, let's start to pray", then, "Pablo, have you poured it yet?" They made an audiotape, which they played for Koresh, and which seemed to convince him. The grand jury charged, among other things, that the Branch Davidians had conspired to, and aided and abetted in, the murder of federal officers, and had unlawfully possessed and used various firearms. Howell and his group relocated to Palestine, Texas. Carmel Complex, Waco Texas,", "Branch Davidians hope a new church can close wounds", Six Branch Davidians due for Release 13 Years After Waco Inferno, Andrade v. Chojnacki, 338 F. 3d 448 - Court of Appeals, 5th Circuit 2003 - Google Scholar, "Prying Open the Case of the Missing Door", Report to the Deputy Attorney General on the Events at Waco, Texas February 28 to April 19, 1993, s: Graeme Craddock Testimony on Waco Fire, "Report Clears Feds in Deaths of Davidians", Activities of Federal Law Enforcement Agencies Toward the Branch Davidians: V. Military involvement in the Government operations at WACO, "Chuck Hustmyre, "Trojan Horse: Inside the ATF raid at Waco, Texas," TruTV Crime Library, 2003", "Documents on Waco Point To a Close Commando Role", Evaluation of the Handling of the Branch Davidian Stand-off in Waco, Texas. A 51-day siege followed this initial skirmish. Branch Davidian survivors have written that Koresh ordered selected male followers to begin arming and taking up defensive positions, while the women and children were told to take cover in their rooms. [85] 40mm munitions recovered by the Texas Rangers at Waco included dozens of plastic Ferret Model SGA-400 Liquid CS rounds, two metal M651E1 military pyrotechnic tear gas rounds, two metal NICO Pyrotechnik sound and flash grenades, and parachute illumination flares. FBI Restraint"), Weapons Possessed by the Branch Davidians, "Texas Rangers Branch Davidian Evidence Reports", "Can Soldiers Be Peace Officers? Also available from Department of Justice. The wall on the right rear side of the building collapses. [105] All Branch Davidians have been released from prison as of July 2007. Released and deported back to the UK in July 2007, he still retained his religious beliefs.[101]. Ramsey Clarka former U.S. Attorney General, who represented several Branch Davidian survivors and relatives in a civil lawsuitsaid that the report "failed to address the obvious": "History will clearly record, I believe, that these assaults on the Mt. Koresh was considered a highly controversial figure not least because he used his position in the group to have sex with multiple wives, including, according to the FBI, girls as young as 10. The county prosecutors did not press the case further. A National Guard helicopter flies past the burning Branch Davidian compound on April 19, 1993. Copyright 2015 - 2024 FreshersLive.com All Rights Reserved. Branch Davidians fire shots at CEV1. [22][23], The Branch Davidians (also known as "The Branch") were a religious group that originated in 1955 from a schism in the Shepherd's Rod (Davidians) following the death of the Shepherd's Rod founder Victor Houteff. David Koresh was the last leader of the Branch Davidians, but he didnt form the group. [91] In all, 76 people died. David Koresh, born Vernon Wayne Howell in 1959, joined the sect in 1981 and became a leader within the community. The official filing date of this affidavit was February 25, 1993. The thoroughly bungled attempt to serve a search warrant took the lives of four ATF agents and six members of the millennialist group and led to a fifty-one day siege that . ", "Raid on the Branch Davidian Compound, Waco, Texas. If you are a Branch Davidian, Christ lives on a threadbare piece of land 10 miles [16 km] east of here called Mount Carmel. The standoff ended on the morning of April 19, when a tank and other FBI armored vehicles moved in. (section "3. To all the people that he hurt, I'm notI can't be an apologist for David Koresh, he told the Dallas Observer, but I feel for people that have had negative experiences at the hands of David. With these two projects in the works, a new generation will soon be introduced to Koresh and his doomed followers. Roden was wounded in the gunfire, and Koresh won control of Mount Carmel. In his new book, Waco: David Koresh, The Branch Davidians and a Legacy of Rage, author Jeff . He stated that he saw some Branch Davidians moving about a dozen one gallon (3.8 L) cans of fuel so they would not be run over by armored vehicles, heard talk of pouring fuel outside the building, and after the fire had started, something that sounded like "light the fire" from another individual. Diana R. Fuentes, "Davidian Told Grand Jury of Arming before the Raid,", House investigators determined that "someone" at BATF lied to the military about the Davidians being involved with drugs in order to get U.S. Army Special Forces and other military aid, in violation of the. [36] By 1992, most of the land belonging to the group had been sold except for a core 77 acres (31ha). [49], Using the affidavit filed by Aguilera that alleged that the Davidians had violated federal law, the ATF obtained search and arrest warrants for Koresh and specific followers on weapons charges, citing the many firearms they had accumulated. David Thibodeau, now 54 years old and living in Maine, was once a member of the Branch Davidians, a religious group that was infamously involved in a 51-day siege by the FBI and ATF in Waco, Texas in April 1993. FBI negotiators secured the release of some Davidians, though many more remained inside the compound. Bria McNeal is a Manhattan based journalist who is patiently awaiting B5's revival. On February 27, 1993, the Waco Tribune Herald published the first in a series of articles reporting that the Branch Davidians, who ran a business selling weapons at gun shows, were stockpiling guns and abusing children on their compound. [35], Howell filed a petition in the California State Superior Court in Pomona on May 15, 1990, to legally change his name "for publicity and business purposes" to David Koresh. They were ready to risk death as a test of their faith. The CEVs used explosives to punch holes in the walls of buildings of the compound so they could pump in CS gas ("tear gas") and try to force the Branch Davidians out without harming them. Thibodeau was one of the few survivors of the siege. Analysis of the shape, duration, and location of the flashes indicated that they resulted from a reflection off debris on or around the complex, rather than gunfire. Agents quickly took cover and fired at the buildings while the helicopters began their diversion and swept in low over the complex, 350 feet (105 m) away from the building. As a response to Thompson, Michael McNulty released footage to support his counter-claim that the appearance of light was a reflection on aluminized insulation that was torn from the wall and snagged on the vehicle. [15][88] A large concentration of bodies, weapons, and ammunition was found in "the bunker" storage room. Alan A. [172] Despite the fact that it has not been confirmed by the developers, it has also been seen as a source of inspiration for the map's setting, because the main building closely resembles the Davidians' church. ", FBI surveillance tapes record Branch Davidians saying "They're gonna kill us", then "They don't want to kill us.". He was eventually acquitted of all charges. Thibodeau moved to the group's compound, known as the Mt. [55], Although the ATF preferred to arrest Koresh when he was outside Mount Carmel, planners received inaccurate information that Koresh rarely left it. Branch Davidian Standoff . [148] After 81 days of negotiations, the Freemen surrendered to authorities on June 14, 1996 without a loss of life. DVD Recording. The paper claimed that Koresh had announced he was entitled to at least 140 wives and that he was entitled to claim any of the women in the group as his, that he had fathered at least a dozen children, and that some of these mothers became brides as young as 12 or 13 years old. David Thibodeau is an American author and musician who is best known for his memoir "Waco: A Survivor's Story.". The incident occurred when the US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) attempted to execute a search warrant at the Branch Davidian compound in Waco, Texas. A yearlong investigation ensued, during which the Office of the Special Counsel interviewed 1,001 witnesses, reviewed over 2.3 million pages of documents, and examined thousands of pounds of physical evidence. Fire begins to burn out. During the siege, several scholars who study apocalypticism in religious groups attempted to persuade the FBI that the siege tactics being used by government agents would only reinforce the impression within the Branch Davidians that they were part of a Biblical "end-of-times" confrontation that had cosmic significance. Did David Thibodeau Go to Jail? [103] The Branch Davidians pressed this issue before the United States Supreme Court. [29] George Roden had dug up the casket of Anna Hughes from the Davidian cemetery and had challenged Howell to a resurrection contest to prove who was the rightful heir to the leadership. [58], The ATF attempted to execute their search warrant on Sunday morning, February 28, 1993. The Branch Davidians began as an offshoot of the Seventh Day Adventist Church, and by the early 1960s had gained control of the Mount Carmel compound in Texas from an earlier group. [42] Koresh then told undercover ATF agent Robert Rodriguez that they knew a raid was imminent. But he was not the founder of the group. The Oklahoma City bombing on April 19, 1995, caused the media to revisit many of the questionable aspects of the government's actions at Waco, and many Americans who previously supported those actions began asking for an investigation of them. Many scholars and religious leaders will wish to have copies for examination. The Montana Freemen became the center of public attention in 1996 when they engaged in a prolonged armed standoff with agents of the FBI. by Angela K. Brown (AP, April 20, 2006) Waco, Texas - Thirteen years after the Branch Davidians' armed standoff with federal agents ended in an inferno that killed nearly 80 people, six sect members who were sent to prison are about to be released from custody. The remaining 62 adults and 21 children, who refused to leave the Mount Carmel compound, then began their standoff with the government. [164], Two heavy metal bands wrote songs about the Davidian standoff: Machine Head's "Davidian" opened their debut album Burn My Eyes[165] and Sepulturas "Amen" was the fourth track from their Chaos A.D. The Branch Davidian compound explodes in a burst of flames on April 19, 1993, ending . [25] However, 98 people remained in the building. CEV1 breaks through the front door to deliver more gas. Her work has appeared in NYLON, Refinery29, InStyle, and her personal newsletter, StirCrazy. [144] McVeigh testified that he chose the date of April 19 because it was the second anniversary of the deadly fire at Mount Carmel. He mentions that Rogers said in an interview with the FBI that "when we started depriving them, [we were] really driving people closer to him [Koresh] because of their devotion to him,"[118] which was different from what he said in the Department of Justice report. On March 1, 1993, FBI agents took control of the property, and ended up presiding over what became a 51-day siege. Among these items were over forty-five AR-15 upper receivers and five M-16 upper receivers, which Aguilera annotated, "These kits contain all the parts of an M-16 except for the lower receiver unit, which is the 'firearm' by lawful definition," admitting that neither the noise complaints nor the items ordered were necessarily illegal. In order to produce those children, he mandated that his male followers become celibate, even those who were married, and took multiple wives from the ranks of his followers. [42] Sheriff Harwell states in William Gazecki's documentary Waco: The Rules of Engagement that the ATF agents withdrew only after they were out of ammunition. Nine survivors served time in federal prison on charges related to the initial raid on the compound, in which four ATF agents and six Davidians were killed. The Supreme Court reversed, holding that the term "machine gun" in the relevant statute created an element of the offense to be determined by a jury, rather than a sentencing factor to be determined by a judge, as had happened in the trial court. The first film was a made-for television docudrama film, In the Line of Duty: Ambush in Waco, which was made during the siege, before the April 19 assault on the church, and presented the initial firefight of February 28, 1993 as an ambush. [88] According to the FBI, Steve SchneiderKoresh's top aideshot and killed Koresh and then himself. Outside the compound, nine Bradley Fighting Vehicles carrying M651 CS tear gas grenades and Ferret rounds and five M728 Combat Engineer Vehicles obtained from the U.S. Army began patrolling. Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window), Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window), Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window), Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window), Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window), Mark Perlstein/The LIFE Images Collection/Getty Images, https://www.history.com/news/what-happened-to-the-branch-davidians-after-waco. I will keep a copy with me. They believe that at the end of days, Koresh and their loved ones will all be resurrected as martyrs. On August 28, he was granted the petition. A gun battle ensued, leaving four ATF agents and six Branch Davidians dead. Eventually, the FBI cut all power and water to the compound, forcing those inside to survive on rainwater and stockpiled military MRE rations. "[110] Houston attorney Dick DeGuerin, who went inside Mount Carmel during the siege, testified at the trial that protruding metal on the inside of the right-hand entry door made it clear that the bullet holes were made by incoming rounds. This sect, which calls itself Branch, the Lord Our Righteousness, is helmed by a former follower of Lois Roden, who initially parted ways with the group after Koresh came to power. Before the fatal fire, 14 adults and 21 children left the compound, while nine more escaped after the fire began. His testimony and advocacy have played a significant role in shaping the public's understanding of the Waco siege and the government's actions during the event. "By the sound of it," he said, "it was likely a .50 caliber machine gun and multiple M-16s." [50][51] The search warrant commanded a search "on or before February 28, 1993", in the daytime between 6:00 am and 10:00 pm. It's been 25 years to the day since the standoff began between the federal government and the Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas. There, Koresh led the Branch Davidians, an offshoot of the Seventh-Day Adventists that predicted the second coming of Christ and the Armageddon. Shortly after, in 1994, a collection of 45 essays called From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco was published, about the events of Waco from various cultural, historical, and religious perspectives. [57] Other reports claim the first shots were fired by the ATF "dog team" sent to kill the dogs in the Branch Davidian kennel. As of 2023, it remains the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in American history. 397.5.078. Concerning the Handling of Incidents Such As the Branch Davidian Standoff in Waco Texas", "Report to the Deputy Attorney General on the Events at Waco, Texas/Child Abuse", "Report to the Deputy Attorney General on the Events at Waco, Texas/Attitudes of Koresh and others in the Compound", "Agent Denies ATF Fired First at Waco, Surrender Offer Called Ruse", Report to the Deputy Attorney General on the Events at Waco, Texas, "Joe Rosenbloom III, "Waco: More than Simple Blunders?," Wall Street Journal, October 17, 1995", "Report to the Deputy Attorney General on the Events at Waco, Texas/The Aftermath of the April 19 Fire ("The Fire Development Analysis" section)", "Koresh's Top Aide Killed Cult Leader, FBI Official Says", "Report to the Deputy Attorney General on the Events at Waco, Texas/Appendix D", "C. Identification of Bodies/Medical Examiner Reports", cesnur.org "Final report to the Deputy Attorney General concerning the 1993 confrontation at the Mt. Agents claimed the holes allowed insertion of the gas as well as provided a means of escape. Koresh was also said to advocate polygamy for himself and declared himself married to several female residents of the small community. The siege of the Waco compound lasted for 51 days, and it ended with the deaths of 76 people, including David Koresh and many of his followers. Lois considered their son, George Roden, unfit to assume the position of prophet. I had to face it and try to make sense of it.. David Thibodeau is an American author and musician, best known for his memoir "Waco: A Survivor's Story." One object hurtles into the air, bounces off the top of a bus, and lands on the grass. His website features a vast collection of media related to the Waco siege, including news reports, documentaries, and interviews with survivors and their families. [88], Autopsies of the dead revealed that some women and children found beneath a fallen concrete wall of a storage room died of skull injuries. April 19 was also the date from the American Revolution's opening battles. [95] As such, the FBI stated that the pyrotechnic devices were unlikely to have contributed to the fire. An Austin Chronicle article noted, "Long before the fire, the Davidians were discussing the evidence contained in the doors. Carmel have been mentioned in discussions of the Waco siege. [167], Hip hop duo Heavy Metal Kings, featuring Vinnie Paz of Jedi Mind Tricks and Ill Bill, reference the siege in their song Impaled Nazarene from their 2011 self-titled debut. They believed that the ATF agents responsible for the Branch Davidian stationed there. The siege left 75 people including children dead and changed the way some Americans felt about the federal government. David and Rachel Koresh with their son, Cyrus. [19][20][21], The Waco siege was cited by Timothy McVeigh as the main reason for his and Terry Nichols's plan to execute the Oklahoma City bombing exactly two years later, on April 19, 1995, as well as the modern-day American militia movement and a rise in opposition to firearm regulation. The tear gas rounds procured from Company "F" in Waco turned out to be unusable pyrotechnic and were returned to the Company "F" office afterward. (His lawyers brought the exhumed coffin to court, hoping to introduce it as evidence. FBI surveillance tapes record "Don't pour it all out, we might need some later" and "Throw the tear gas back out." Both the Branch Davidians and New Mount Carmel Center date back to the 1930s. The Texas Rangers' arson investigator report assumes that many of the occupants were either denied escape from within or refused to leave until escape was not an option. The series of events, which gripped the nation two decades ago, is now the focus of Paramount Networks WACO, a six-part television miniseries that premieres Wednesday. An agent fired his shotgun at Branch Davidians until he was hit in the head by return fire and killed. According to a 2013 report by NPR, he remained in Waco and continued to hold Bible study weekly with Sheila Martin, another Branch Davidian survivor who left the compound during the standoff with three of her children; her husband and four other children died in the fire. Then a second male says, "Well, there are two cans here, if that's poured soon.". The show starred Taylor Kitsch as the cult leader and is based on the memoirs of a survivor, David Thibodeau (Rory Culkin), and FBI negotiator Gary Noesner (Michael Shannon.) [142], Timothy McVeigh cited the Waco incident as a primary motivation[143] for the Oklahoma City bombing, his 19 April 1995 truck bomb attack that destroyed the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, a U.S. government office complex in downtown Oklahoma City, and destroyed or damaged numerous other buildings in the vicinity. Waco: The Rules of Engagement was nominated for a 1997 Academy Award for best documentary and was followed by another film in 1999, Waco: A New Revelation.[158]. [121] Professor Kenneth Newport's book The Branch Davidians of Waco attempts to prove that starting the fire themselves was pre-planned and consistent with the Branch Davidians' theology. He embarked upon a sexual relationship with Lois and challenged her son, George Roden, for leadership of the group after her death. They sought monetary damages under the Federal Tort Claims Act, civil rights statutes, the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, and Texas state law. Disciplinary action was pursued against those individuals. ", "Events surrounding the Branch Davidian cult standoff in Waco, Texas: hearing before the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress, first session, April 28, 1993. The Branch Davidians were an eccentric religious group in Waco, Texas, whose leader, David Koresh, had multiple wives and slept with under-age girls. Brad Eugene Branch convicted of voluntary manslaughter and using a firearm during a crime. According to Stone, this incorrect evaluation caused the FBI to not ask pertinent questions to Koresh and to others on the compound about whether they were planning a mass suicide. The affidavit closed with Aguilera verifying the story via interviews made with associated parties and gun shops from which the Mag-Bag purchased items. The Davidians, however, had plenty." (Lyons Press, 2017), which chronicles some of history's most famous disappearances. Among those killed were a 3-year-old boy who was fatally stabbed in the chest and two other minors who suffered fatal blows to the head, according to the FBI. The failure for six years to disclose the use of pyrotechnics, despite her specific directive, led Reno to demand an investigation. After examining this and four other letters by Koresh, Miron wrote in an April 15 report that Koresh exhibited "all the hallmarks of rampant, morbidly virulent paranoia"[75] concluding "I do not believe there is in these writings any better, or at least certain, hope for an early end to the siege. In 1995, Congress held hearings to investigate the Waco siege, but the hearings soon turned into a partisan battle over the Republican-led investigation's alleged association with the National Rifle Association (NRA). Magazines, Digital Many of the deceased had fatal gunshot wounds to the head, chest and face, authorities said. To the Branch Davidians, Koresh was "the Lamb," the only one (according to the Book of Revelation) worthy of unlocking the Seven Seals and revealing to the world the entirety of the Bible's . There remained a few survivors from the Branch Davidians camp. In April 1993, some 75 members of the millennial sect known as the Branch Davidiansincluding their messianic leader, David Koreshperished in the blaze that destroyed their compound near Waco, Texas, after a 51-day siege by federal agents. He does not belong to a church. The Waco siege, as well as the 1992 incident between the Weaver family and the FBI at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, were still fresh in the public mind, and the FBI was extremely cautious and wanted to prevent a recurrence of those violent events. Chuck Hustmyre, "Trojan Horse: Inside the ATF raid at Waco, Texas," TruTV Crime Library, 2003. [152], The first documentary films critical of the official versions were Waco, the Big Lie[153] and Waco II, the Big Lie Continues, both produced by Linda Thompson in 1993. [54] The ATF later claimed that the raid was moved up a day, to February 28, 1993, in response to the Waco Tribune-Herald's "The Sinful Messiah" series of articles (which the ATF had tried to prevent from being published). [71] Two more British nationals who survived the siege were immediately arrested as "material witnesses" and imprisoned without trial for months. The local sheriff, in audiotapes broadcast after the incident, said he was not apprised of the raid. [79] The FBI voiced concern that the Branch Davidians might commit mass suicide, as had happened in 1978 at Jim Jones's Jonestown complex. The documentary The Assault on Waco was first aired in 2006 on the Discovery Channel, detailing the entire incident. On March 16, he asked the FBI for permission to discuss the Bible with Arnold directly. Waco is partially based on the memoirs of survivor David Thibodeau, who managed to escape the burning compound and today lives in his hometown in Bangor, Maine, where he plays the drums in a local band. But the Branch Davidians were an unconventional group in an exalted, disturbed and desperate state of mind. In addition to Doyles congregation, a second group of Davidians settled on the site of the disaster, building a church atop the charred foundations of the original compound and placing plaques with the names of Davidians who died in the raid. "[81], Newly appointed U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno approved recommendations by the FBI Hostage Rescue Team to mount an assault, after being told that conditions were deteriorating and that children were being abused inside the compound. The number of ATF wounded increased, and an agent was killed by gunfire from the compound as agents were firing at a Branch Davidian perched on top of the water tower. But David Koresh and his followers resisted. In March 1993, McVeigh drove from Arizona to Waco to observe the federal standoff. Department of Justice reports from October 1993 and July 2000 conclude that although incendiary tear gas canisters were used by the FBI, the Branch Davidians had started the fire, citing evidence from audio surveillance recordings of very specific discussions between Koresh and others about pouring more fuel on piles of hay as the fires started, and from aerial footage showing at least three simultaneous ignition points at different locations in the building complex. 8 BRANCH DAVIDIANS GET SENTENCES OF 5 TO 40 YEARS IN PRISON SAN ANTONIO -- Eight Branch Davidian cult members were sentenced yesterday to five to 40 years in prison for their roles in a. The ATF used an affidavit filed by Special Agent David Aguilera to obtain the search and arrest warrant that led to the Waco siege. They contended that the trial court judge, Walter S. Smith, Jr., should have recused himself from hearing their claims on account of his relationships with defendants, defense counsel, and court staff; prior judicial determinations; and comments during trial. Dozens of ATF agents took cover, many behind Branch Davidian vehicles, and exchanged fire with the Branch Davidians. When she's not writing about all things entertainment, she can be found watching TV or trying to DIY something (likely, at the same time). The U.S. Department of Justice report indicated that only one body had traces of benzene, one of the components of solvent-dispersed CS gas, but that the gas insertions had finished nearly one hour before the fire started, and that it was enough time for solvents to dissipate from the bodies of the Branch Davidians that had inhaled the tear gas. [42] From April 5 until April 13, Koresh refused to speak to the FBI, citing observance of the Passover holiday. 1999), Castillo v. United States, 530 U.S. 120 (2000). The City of God: A New American Opera by Joshua Armenta dramatized the negotiations between the FBI and Koresh, premiered in 2012, utilizing actual transcripts from the negotiations as well as biblical texts and hymns from the Davidian hymnal. A law enforcement source states that David Koresh is dead. The Special Counsel considered whether the use of active-duty military at Waco violated the Posse Comitatus Act or the Military Assistance to Law Enforcement Act. [80] According to Alan A. "In the hallway""Things are poured, right?" Howell instead went to the police and claimed Roden was guilty of corpse abuse, but the county prosecutors refused to file charges without proof. HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. [76] FBI planners, growing increasingly impatient, considered using snipers to kill David Koresh and possibly other key Branch Davidians. "Waco: A Survivor's Story" is a memoir written by David Thibodeau with co-author Leon Whiteson. They raised a host of issues, challenging the constitutionality of the prohibition on possession of machine guns, the jury instructions, the district court's conduct of the trial, the sufficiency of the evidence, and the sentences imposed.

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